讀書與考試
　許多人都會在讀書時遇到很多難題，例如不知如何做筆記，寫撮要，結果上完課後，很多課堂內容都忘掉，到考試時，更感恐懼和不知所措，我們特別提供一些有效的讀書方法及考試時的注意事項，令你易於了解課堂內容，並且可以鬆容應付考試。

第一課：課堂做筆記　Note-taking

如果你懂得做好筆記，不但能夠了解課堂的內容，更幫助你在測驗或考試時從容應付。

課堂做筆記，可分為三個步驟：

（1）    記錄資料 Recording the information

（2）    編輯資料 Editing the information

（3）    溫習資料 Studying the information

（1） 記錄資料 Recording the information：

i)              嘗試將記錄完整的筆記內容。 （Try to take as complete a set of notes as possible.）

ii)             使用標準筆記簿或活頁簿，在頁面左邊預留一些空間作提問及附註之用。 （Take notes in full-size notebooks – 8.5 x 11 inches or on standard notebook paper. Leave a large margin on the left to help you study your notes later.）

iii)           每次做筆記時都寫下日期，並將筆記按科目保存好，以方便日後溫習。 （Date all notes and keep the notes for each subject together.）

iv)           除了特別要求使用鉛筆外，最好能夠用原子筆或墨水筆做筆記，避免字跡較淺色而難以閱讀，而且也不能保存太久。 （Use ink; pencil tends to smear and is harder to read.）

v)            做筆記時文字要精簡，盡量用短語，無須把講師所說的每字每句記下來，只須抓住重點，利用省略語或自己慣用的略詞來記下一些特別詞語，以節省時間和便於重溫，例如：用“ECON”來表示Economics，“MFR”表示Manufacturer，“＋”代表increase，“－”代表reduce等。 （Take notes in phrases, omitting unnecessary words. Do not try to record the lecture word for word. Use abbreviations for common words and develop your own abbreviations for the special vocabulary of the course.）

vi)           將重點放在頁面左邊位置，然後記下有關資料，在重點與重點之間留些空位，方便日後補充其他資料，亦令自己閱讀時易於找到重點所在。 （Use space to help you record the organization of the lecture. Put main ideas at the left margin and indent the details related to that idea. Leave bland space between main ideas so that you can tell by looking at your notes where one idea ends and another begins.）

vii)         假如知道有資料遺留時，預留一些空位待日後再補充。如果有什麼地方不明白，可在資料上加星號或問號，亦待日後覆查書本或請教別人。 （If you know you are missing information, leave blank space so that you can try to fill it in later. If you don’t understand something, mark it with an asterisk or a question mark.）

viii)        嘗試記錄主要重點，並以短語或撮要作補充論據。 （Try to record the main ideas and a phrase or summary for each supporting detail.）

   如何分辨課堂上的重點 How to identify the main ideas：

i)                    在未聽課之前，嘗試去了解課堂的題目，例如可略讀指定參考書或講義，或從報刊和網上瀏覽有關資料。 （Try to be familiar with the topic of the lecture before you listen. Read or at least preview the assigned chapters of textbook or browse the related information from the Internet or newspaper/magazine.）

ii)                   通常導師都會強調重點及作出闡釋，例如引述例證及提出論據支持，以下是一些講者最常用的表達方式：

a)      聲調轉變或提高聲音 Change in pitch or volume of the voice；

b)     改變聲音速度 Change in rate of speech；

c)      表列支持論點 Listing & numbering points；

d)     將重點寫在板上 Writing on the chalkboard；

e)      利用影像或音響播放 Use of audiovisuals；

f)       直接宣佈 Direct announcement；

（2） 編輯資料 Editing the information：

i)                    下課後，閱讀自己的筆記，如同看到問題的答案一樣。 （Soon after class, read over your notes, viewing them as though they were the answers to questions.）

ii)                   在筆記的左面寫上問題，嘗試問自己一些「怎麼樣」或「為什麼」的問題，而不是單單「什麼」及「誰人」的問題，這樣可以對筆記資料有更深入的認識。 （Write the question s in the margin to the left of the line. Attempt to ask “how” and “why” questions, which involve more thought and a deeper look at the material than just “what” and “who” questions.）

iii)                 重讀筆記時，盡量填補一些之前遺留的空白及更正錯誤。 Fill in any gaps or make any necessary corrections as you reread your notes.

iv)                 對一些缺漏或須闡明的地方，可請教同學或導師。 Ask a classmate or the instructor to help complete missing information or to clarify points.

v)                  總括每節課的筆記，以一個概括性問題來包含該節課堂資料，並把問題寫在筆記的開始或結尾，用以提醒自己課堂的內容。 （For each day’s lecture, generate one general question that will cover most of the material dealt with in that class session. Write the question at the beginning or end of the notes.）

（3）  溫習資料　Studying the information:

i)                    重溫筆記時，嘗試解答那些原先寫在頁面左邊的問題。 （Cover the notes and attempt to answer the questions in the margin.）

ii)                   嘗試回答每課筆記的概括性問題，便可以更全面了解課堂內容。 （To get a more general review, try to answer the general question for each lecture.）

iii)                 在出席下一節課堂前，預先溫習上次的筆記；當然，在考試前，更須重溫筆記內容。 （Review notes before you attend the next class and, of course, before examinations.）

筆記例子：

Course: Anthropology 102                                Lecturer:

13 January 2003

Reference:

Text for Anthropology 102  - Cultural Anthropology by Haviland Harcourt Brace Publishers, 1996

Chapter 7 – Economic Systems

How do Anthropologists study Economic systems?
Anthropologists study the means by which goods are produced, distributed, and consumed in the context of the total culture of particular societies. Although they have borrowed theories and concepts from economists, most anthropologists believe that principles derived from the study of Western market economies have limited applicability to economic systems where people do not produce and exchange goods for profit.

How do the Economies of non-industrial peoples work?
In non-Western, non-industrial societies there is always a division of labor by age and sex, with some additional craft specialization. Land and other valuable resources are lineages, and individual ownership is rare. Production takes goods are consumed by the group that produced them, and most goods are consumed by the group that produced them. Leveling mechanism ensure that no one accumulates significantly more goods than anyone else.

How and why are goods exchanged in non-industrial societies?
Non-industrial peoples exchange goods through the processes of reciprocity, redistribution, and market services of roughly equivalent value, and it is often undertaken for ritual purposes or in order to gain prestige. Redistribution requires some sort of government and/or religious elite to collect and then reallocate resources, in the form of either goods or services. Market exchange, which in non-industrial societies means going to a specific place for direct exchange of goods, also serves as entertainment and as a means of exchanging important information. The latter are frequently primary motivating forces bringing people into the marketplace.

Chapter Outline

Economic Anthropology

Resources

            Patterns of Labor

                        Sexual Division of Labor

                        Age Division of Labor

                        Cooperation

                        Craft Specialization

            Control of Land

            Technology

            Leveling Mechanisms

Distribution and Exchange

            Reciprocity – generalized reciprocity, balanced reciprocity, negative reciprocity

                        Barter and Trade

                                    Silent trade

            The Kula Ring

            Redistribution

            Distribution of Wealth

                        Conspicuous consumption

            Market Exchange

                        Money, informal economy

Economics, culture and the world of business

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